Rulers, Buildings, and Architecture (Medieval)

Engineering Skills And Construction (Medieval)

The medieval period in India (roughly 8th to 18th centuries) was a time of significant architectural activity, marked by the construction of numerous grand buildings under the patronage of various rulers. These structures reflect the engineering skills and technological advancements of the time.

Developments in Construction:

Medieval architecture saw the continuation of existing techniques and the introduction of new ones.
Key developments included the increased use of arches and domes, and the use of stronger binding materials.

Trabeate Vs Arcuate Styles

Two main architectural styles were prevalent:
- Trabeate (or Corbelled) style: Involved placing horizontal beams across vertical columns. Rooms were created by placing horizontal slabs over vertical walls. This was the traditional style seen in many ancient Indian buildings. The weight of the structure is directly transferred downwards through the columns.
- Arcuate style: Involved using arches to span openings and support weight. Arches transfer the weight sideways to the supports (piers or columns). This style was introduced with the arrival of Islamic architecture.

Diagram illustrating Trabeate and Arcuate architectural styles

*(Image shows simple diagrams illustrating the difference between a trabeate system (horizontal beam on vertical columns) and an arcuate system (an arch spanning an opening))*

The arcuate style allowed for spanning wider openings and supporting larger structures compared to the trabeate style, although trabeate structures continued to be built, and later architecture often blended both styles.

Use Of Limestone Cement

A significant technological development in construction during the medieval period was the increased use of limestone cement.
Mixing limestone with water resulted in a strong cement that could bind bricks and stones more effectively.
This made it easier to build large and strong structures, including arches and domes, which were characteristic of Indo-Islamic architecture.
The use of mortar (binding material) became more common and effective.

These developments in engineering skills and construction techniques enabled the rulers of the medieval period to build monumental structures like grand temples, mosques, forts, and tombs, leaving behind a rich architectural legacy.

Building Temples, Mosques And Tanks (Medieval)

Building magnificent structures like temples, mosques, and tanks was a common activity undertaken by rulers in medieval India. These constructions served multiple purposes, reflecting the rulers' power, piety, and commitment to public welfare.

Purpose (Worship, Patron's Power, Wealth)

Places of Worship: The primary purpose of building temples and mosques was to provide places for religious worship and rituals.
Demonstration of Power and Wealth: Rulers built grand structures to display their power, wealth, and resources. The size and grandeur of a temple or mosque could reflect the status of the ruler who commissioned it. It was a way to associate the ruler's name with magnificent achievements.
Legitimising Rule: By patronising religious institutions and building places of worship, rulers sought to gain legitimacy and support from the religious community and the general population. Associating themselves with divine power or a major deity (as seen with the Jagannatha cult and Odisha rulers, or Mughal emperors and Sufi saints) was a way to strengthen their authority.
Symbols of Conquest: Sometimes, temples or mosques were built on sites of conquest to symbolise the ruler's victory and the establishment of their authority.
Providing Services: Building tanks and reservoirs was done for public welfare, providing essential water for irrigation and drinking. This enhanced the ruler's image as a benevolent protector of the people.

Royal Temples And Deities

Rulers often commissioned the construction of large, prominent temples, which were often dedicated to deities associated with the ruler's family or the state.
These 'royal temples' were not just places of worship but also served as symbols of the ruler's power and patronage.
Example: The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, built by the Chola ruler Rajaraja I, was dedicated to Lord Shiva. The scale and magnificence of the temple reflected the power and wealth of the Chola empire. Similarly, the temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajendra I, was meant to celebrate his victory in the Ganga valley.
Deities in these temples were often linked to the rulers, symbolising the connection between the ruler and the divine.

Muslim Rulers And Divine Connection

Muslim rulers also sought to associate themselves with the divine to legitimise their rule.
They built mosques and patronised religious scholars and Sufi saints.
Inscriptions on mosques often praise the ruler, associating them with God and presenting them as upholders of Islamic law.
Building impressive mosques and tombs was also a way to display piety and reinforce their status as rulers.

Importance Of Water And Tanks

Access to water was crucial for agriculture and urban life.
Rulers built large tanks, reservoirs, and sometimes canals to provide water. These were important public works that benefited the population.
Inscriptions often record the construction or renovation of tanks by rulers or wealthy individuals, highlighting their importance.
Example: Tanks were integral to the water system of Vijayanagara (as discussed in the previous chapter).

Image showing a medieval Indian temple or mosque, or a large historical tank

*(Image shows a photograph of a prominent medieval Indian temple, mosque, or a large historical tank)*

Building activities in medieval India were thus driven by a combination of religious devotion, the desire to display power and wealth, the need to legitimise rule, and the provision of public welfare (water resources).

Why Were Temples Targeted? (Medieval)

In medieval India, some rulers, particularly those undertaking military campaigns, targeted and sometimes raided or destroyed temples associated with rival kingdoms. Understanding the reasons behind this requires looking beyond just religious motivations and considering the political and economic context.

Temples as Symbols of Power and Wealth:

Temples were not just places of worship; they were often symbols of the power, wealth, and authority of the rulers who built and patronised them.
Grand temples housed valuable idols, received vast land grants, accumulated wealth through donations, and sometimes controlled significant resources.

Reasons for Targeting Temples:

Political Motivation: Attacking temples associated with a rival king was a way to attack his power and legitimacy. By raiding or destroying the temple, the victorious ruler aimed to demonstrate his military superiority and undermine the authority of the defeated king, whose rule was often linked to the patronage of the temple and its deity.
Economic Motivation: Temples were often repositories of great wealth (gold, silver, jewels, land). Raiding temples provided resources that could be used to fund military campaigns or enrich the treasury.
Symbolic Conquest: Attacking temples was a symbolic act of conquest, demonstrating the defeat of the enemy king and the dominance of the victorious ruler's power.

Examples: Pandyan/Sinhalese, Rajendra I, Mahmud Of Ghazni

Pandyan King Srimara Sri Vallabha and Sinhalese King Sena I: In the 9th century, the Pandyan king Srimara Sri Vallabha invaded Sri Lanka and raided a Buddhist monastery associated with the Sinhalese king Sena I, taking valuable items. Later, the Sinhalese king Sena II invaded the Pandya kingdom in retaliation and attacked temples there.
Chola King Rajendra I: In the early 11th century, Rajendra I, after his military expedition to North India, brought back statues of deities from the kingdoms he defeated. These statues were installed in the Shiva temple he built in his new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, as a symbol of his victories.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni: In the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni raided several temples in North India, including the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat. His raids were primarily for wealth (plunder) and to demonstrate his military power and Islamic credentials, but they also involved the targeting of prominent temples associated with regional rulers.

These examples show that while religious differences could play a role in the rhetoric, the targeting of temples during conflicts was often driven by political and economic motivations, viewing temples as symbols and sources of power of the rival kingdom. This was a common practice among rulers of different religious backgrounds when attacking rival states.

Gardens, Tombs And Forts (Medieval/Mughal)

The Mughals were renowned builders, and their architectural legacy includes magnificent gardens, tombs, and forts. These structures reflect Mughal power, wealth, aesthetic tastes, and their engagement with diverse architectural traditions.

Gardens:

Mughals were fond of gardens, often designed in a formal geometric style called Chahar Bagh.

Chahar Bagh:

This garden layout is divided into four quarters by walkways or flowing water channels.
This style was introduced to India by the Mughals, influenced by Persian garden traditions.
Chahar Bagh gardens were often built around tombs or palaces.
Example: Gardens around Humayun's Tomb, the Taj Mahal, and in Mughal forts like Agra Fort and Lahore Fort.

*(Image shows a photograph or illustration of a Chahar Bagh garden, illustrating the four-part division)*

Tombs:

Mughal emperors built grand tombs for themselves and their family members.
These tombs are significant architectural marvels and symbols of Mughal power and remembrance.
Example: Humayun's Tomb, Akbar's Tomb (Sikandra), Jahangir's Tomb (Lahore), Shah Jahan's Tomb (Taj Mahal).

Humayun's Tomb (Hasht Bihisht):

Built in Delhi in the mid-16th century (started by Humayun's widow, Hamida Banu Begum).
Considered a precursor to the Taj Mahal.
It is built in the tradition of 'Hasht Bihisht' ('eight paradises'), a central hall surrounded by eight rooms.
The tomb is placed in the centre of a large Chahar Bagh garden.
It is made of red sandstone with white marble highlights.
It introduced features like the double dome, which became common in later Mughal architecture.

*(Image shows a photograph of Humayun's Tomb in Delhi)*

Forts:

Mughal emperors built massive and impressive forts that served as military strongholds, royal residences, and administrative centres.
Example: Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Red Fort in Delhi.
These forts contained palaces, audience halls (Diwan-i Aam, Diwan-i Khas), mosques, gardens, and other structures.

Shah Jahan's Architectural Innovations (Halls, Pietra Dura, River-Front)

Emperor Shah Jahan's reign (1627-1658) is considered a period of significant architectural achievements, marked by refinement and grandeur.
Diwan-i Aam and Diwan-i Khas: He built elaborate public and private audience halls in his forts (Agra Fort, Red Fort in Delhi), often with ornate decorations.
Pietra Dura: Increased use of pietra dura (or parchin kari) decoration – intricate inlay work of coloured hard stones (like lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper) into marble or sandstone, creating beautiful floral or geometric patterns.
River-Front Gardens: Developed the concept of river-front gardens, where the palace was located at the edge of the river, with gardens laid out on terraces. Example: The layout of the Red Fort in Delhi and the location of the Taj Mahal.

Taj Mahal

Built by Shah Jahan in Agra in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Considered the pinnacle of Mughal architecture, combining elements of Persian, Indian, and Islamic styles.
Made of white marble, adorned with pietra dura inlay work and calligraphy.
Located on the bank of the Yamuna river, set within a Chahar Bagh garden.
The Taj Mahal is a tomb, a symbol of love, and a masterpiece of architecture, showcasing the heights of Mughal artistic and engineering achievement.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Taj Mahal)*

Mughal architecture, with its forts, gardens, and magnificent tombs (especially the Taj Mahal), reflects the emperors' vision, wealth, and their ability to synthesise diverse architectural traditions, leaving a lasting legacy.

Region And Empire (Architecture Styles)

Medieval Indian architecture was not uniform across the subcontinent. Distinct regional architectural styles developed under the patronage of various regional kingdoms, while the imperial style (e.g., under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals) also evolved through interaction with regional and foreign traditions. There was a constant sharing of ideas and influences between regional and imperial styles.

Sharing Of Ideas Across Regions

Architectural ideas and techniques were exchanged between different regions through the movement of architects, craftspersons, merchants, and rulers.
For example, the techniques developed in one region for building temples or mosques might influence construction in another region.
Cultural influences from different parts of India and from Central Asia and Persia blended in various regional styles.

Mughal Adaptation Of Regional Styles

The Mughal emperors, while developing their distinct imperial style (characterised by features like arches, domes, minarets, chahar bagh, pietra dura), also incorporated elements from regional architectural traditions they encountered.
Example: The early Mughal buildings at Fatehpur Sikri show influence from the architecture of Gujarat and Rajasthan, including the use of trabeate elements and intricate carving styles. Akbar's palace buildings in Fatehpur Sikri have elements reminiscent of Rajput architecture.
This blending of imperial and regional styles led to a rich synthesis in Mughal architecture.

Regional Architectural Styles:

Besides the imperial styles, prominent regional styles flourished:

Dravidian style: Developed in South India, characterised by tall pyramidal towers (vimanas) over the sanctum and towering gateways (gopurams). Flourished under the Pallavas, Cholas, and later Vijayanagara rulers.
Nagara style: Developed in North India, characterised by curved towers (shikharas) over the sanctum.
Indo-Islamic regional styles: Distinct styles emerged in different regional Sultanates, blending local traditions with Islamic architectural features (e.g., Bengal Sultanate architecture with curved roofs and terracotta work, Gujarat Sultanate architecture blending local Hindu/Jain styles with Islamic elements).

Images comparing different medieval Indian architectural styles (e.g., Nagara temple, Dravidian temple, Mughal building, Bengal Sultanate mosque)

*(Image shows photographs illustrating different medieval Indian architectural styles, showcasing a Nagara shikhara, a Dravidian vimana/gopuram, a Mughal structure with arch/dome, and a regional Indo-Islamic building)*

Medieval Indian architecture is a testament to the dynamic interaction between imperial patronage, regional traditions, and influences from different cultures, resulting in a diverse and rich architectural heritage.

Splendid Temples And Bronze Sculpture (Chola context)

This heading is duplicated, as it was covered in the chapter "New Kingdoms and Dynasties (Early Medieval, Cholas)", Section I2. Please refer to that section for details on the splendid temples and bronze sculptures of the Chola period.

In summary, the Chola period (c. 9th-13th centuries CE) is renowned for the construction of magnificent temples (e.g., Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur) in the Dravidian style and the creation of exquisite bronze sculptures (e.g., Nataraja), reflecting the Chola rulers' patronage of art, architecture, and religion.

Gopurams And Mandapas (Vijayanagara context)

This heading is duplicated, as it was covered in the chapter "Kingdoms in the South (Vijayanagara)", Section I5. Please refer to that section for details on Gopurams and Mandapas as characteristic features of Vijayanagara temple architecture.

In summary, Vijayanagara temple architecture is known for its towering gateways (Gopurams) and large pillared halls (Mandapas), which were prominent features of temples built under the patronage of the Vijayanagara rulers, showcasing their wealth and devotion.